6.7–Selected Reading and Study Questions
Nicole Hagstrom-Schmidt
Aristophanes (c. 446–c. 386 BCE)
Lysistrata (411 BCE)
Aristophanes. Lysistrata. Translated by Edward Einhorn. Theater 61 Press, 2015. http://www.lysistratascript.com/script/
Scene 1 & Chorus 1 Summary
After a wild night of partying, the Athenian Lysistrata gathers several women from the warring Athens and its allies (Thebes and Corinth) and Sparta to discuss the ongoing war between their nations. She proposes that the women withhold sexual relations from their husbands until they agree to stop the war. Begrudgingly, the women swear an oath on a shared cup of wine.
The Men’s Chorus approaches the Acropolis where the women have set up camp with the plan to burn or smoke them out. The Women’s Chorus responds that they are prepared to fight back. The two leaders of each Chorus engage in a battle of wits that concludes with the Women’s Leader throwing cold water on the Men’s Leader’s testicles.
Lysistrata Scene 1 & Chorus 1 Questions and Activities for Further Analysis
- Lysistrata often shocks modern audiences with its blunt references to sex and sexuality. This bluntness is apparent in both its original Greek and in many subsequent translations. What are some of the effects that sex has on the audience?
- Lysistrata is noted as a classic “battle of the sexes.” What stereotypes of men and women do we see thus far? Are any of these surprising?
- In most translations, Lampito the Spartan woman speaks differently from her peers. How does Einhorn represent her language? How does this compare with other translations? (See links to the following for freely available online translations: Perseus Edition; ). What do these choices suggest about the differences between Lampito and the other women?
- The Chorus is a common feature in Greek plays. Traditionally, they operate by singing (or speak-singing) about larger thematic ideas. In Lysistrata, the two Choruses (a Men’s Chorus and a Women’s Chorus) interact as part of the plot and even have their own development between the two leaders. How do these two Choruses intersect with the major plot of Lysistrata?
- What is the significance of the women holding the Acropolis as opposed to setting up a base in a local home or other location?
Scene 2 & Chorus 2 Summary
The local Magistrate attempts to deal with Lysistrata and her companions at the Acropolis. When he orders an attack, the women defend themselves with foodstuffs and household items.
The male and female choruses continue to sing and argue against each other. The Men’s Leader worries that the women will form their own battle units and defeat them. The Women’s Leader complains that because of war, she was unable to celebrate a feast where she invited guests who suddenly became war enemies.
Lysistrata Scene 2 & Chorus 2 Questions and Activities for Further Analysis
- Throughout the scene we hear several examples of women speaking and being silenced. The Magistrate, for instance, commands the men to “grab [Calonice] first, she talks too much,” and Lysistrata reports that her husband insists that she “hold [her] tongue” when she asks him about his day. What does this suggest about speaking and power? How do both genders use language in this scene and throughout the play?
- Midway through the scene, Lysistrata identifies the different ranks of women who have joined the cause, including “barmaids,” “baker women,” and “egg sellers.” All of these women, she further clarifies, are “freeborn.” Who is noticeably absent from these freeborn women? What does their absence suggest?
- This scene concludes with the women joking about different Greek funeral traditions. What are these traditions, and what do they suggest about Greek culture? If this play were to be adapted to a modern-day context, what traditions might be more familiar to the audience?
- How reasonable are the concerns and complaints of each Chorus here?
- In addition to singing, Choruses often performed some form of dance or choreography. Imagine you are a director or choreographer for this play: what kind of dancing or movement would work in the Choruses’ exchanges?
- In her final lines in this interlude, the Women’s Chorus Leader remarks that she was planning to “celebrate the feast of Hecate.” Who is Hecate? What effect, if any, does having a religious feast canceled have on the complaint? How does this god worship tie in with other references to Greek gods we have seen throughout the play thus far?
Scene 3 & Chorus 3 Summary
After a few days without sex, many of the women grow restless and try to flee the Acropolis to return home to their husbands. Lysistrata stops them and invokes an impromptu prophecy from Zeus to persuade them to stick with the plan.
The two Choruses continue to sing at each other, though this time they talk about pubic hair and Timon of Athens while making more puns about sex organs.
Lysistrata Scene 3 & Chorus 3 Questions and Activities for Further Analysis
- The women in Lysistrata are just as horny as the men. What do their actions suggest about the relationship among genders and their feelings about sex? Why might have Aristophanes included this scene showing the women are getting desperate for sexual relations?
- A continued theme throughout the play is the invocation of different gods and goddesses. How does Lysistrata’s appeal to Zeus compare with the other invocations we’ve seen so far? Does it support, contradict, or challenge how religious invocation has been used prior?
- Though this play is clearly about sex and gender, acting roles in classical Greek theater were all played by men wearing masks. How might having roles played by an all-male (or all-female or all-queer cast) affect the interpretative options and humor of the play?
- The “Timon” that the Women’s Chorus mentions is part of another famous Athenian story that even Shakespeare adapted several centuries later. Who was Timon of Athens? What is his story, and how does it fit in this scene?
Scene 4 & Chorus 4 Summary
Myrrhina’s husband, Cinesias, and his servant who pretends to be carrying Myrrhina and Cinesias’s child, arrives with a large erection. Myrrhina torments him by agreeing to sneak off to copulate with him, but continually leaves their rendezvous point to retrieve different items.
The Spartan Herald (also with a noticeable erection) later finds the suffering Cinesias. They agree to return to their own countries to negotiate a peace treaty.
The Leaders of the Men’s and Women’s Choruses reconcile.
Lysistrata Scene 4 & Chorus 4 Questions and Activities for Further Analysis
- How would you characterize the relationship between Myrrhina and Cinesias? How might their relationship compare with some of the other pairings that have been emerging in the play?
- This scene is historically bawdy and often uses comically large phalloi as props. What is the effect of having visible erections on stage? Who might this play have entertained or entertain? How does the humor change if a penis (or a shape of one) is not visible to the audience?
Scene 5 & Chorus 5 Summary
The Spartans (led by the Herald) and the Athenian (led by Cinesias) arrive to peace talks headed by Lysistrata, who appears to great cheers and praise. Lysistrata brings a walking statue in the form of a naked woman whom she calls “Peace.” Both the Herald and Cinesias note their mutual attraction to Peace and settle their differences, thus ending the war between their countries.
The play concludes with a large party, complete with singing, dancing, and alcohol.
Lysistrata Scene 5 & Chorus 5 Questions and Activities for Further Analysis
- Despite being the titular character, Lysistrata does not speak in this final Chorus. Who ends up speaking the final lines of the play?
- What is the final message that Cinesias offers to the audience? How does this message compare with the themes and messages throughout the play?
William Shakespeare (1565–1616)
Othello (1602–1603)
Link to text: Othello.
Shakespeare, William. Othello. Edited by Barbara A. Mowat and Paul Werstein. Simon & Schuster, 2017. Folger Shakespeare Library. https://shakespeare.folger.edu/shakespeares-works/othello/.
Act I Summary
Renowned military general Othello has recently promoted Cassio to his second-in-command over Iago, an ensign who is certainly not over it. As part of his long con to revenge himself on Othello, Iago uses Roderigo to inform the Venetian Brabantio that Othello has eloped with his daughter, Desdemona. Furious, Brabantio seeks out Othello. Meanwhile, Othello and Desdemona’s wedding night is interrupted by news from Cassio, summoning Othello to the Venetian Senate in order to address a military threat in Cypress. Brabantio accompanies Othello to the Senate, and they both argue their case for Desdemona in front of the Duke. Desdemona also offers her perspective.
- Although Othello is the title of the play, the character with the most lines is actually the villain, Iago. What do we learn about Iago and his motivations in Act 1? How does Iago’s speech compare to his actions when with Othello?
- How is Othello referred to by other characters? How do these epithets serve to distinguish Othello both positively and negatively from the rest of the characters?
- Reread Othello’s dramatic monologue where he explains to the Senate how he and Desdemona fell in love (1.3.149–195).
- Why does Othello promote Cassio over Iago?
Act 2 Summary
Desdemona, Iago, and Emilia (Iago’s wife) arrive in Cyprus in time to see the pirates defeated. Iago persuades Roderigo (who loves Desdemona) that Cassio loves Desdemona, and enlists his aid to get Cassio demoted. During a citywide celebration ordered by Othello, Iago convinces Cassio to become drunk enough to fight Roderigo. Othello stops the fight and dismisses Cassio immediately. Iago then comforts Cassio, telling him to seek Desdemona’s help in getting back into Othello’s good graces.
- Early in the act, Desdemona and Iago have a debate about women. What attitudes and arguments do they present? What does what they have to say about women suggest about their own attitudes and motivations?
- What is the significance of reputation in this play? How do different characters attempt to manage their reputations or how others perceive them?
- Why is Iago so convincing to Roderigo, Cassio, and Othello?
Act 3 Summary
Per Iago’s suggestion, Cassio talks with Emilia in order to gain access to Desdemona. Emilia assures him that Othello and Desdemona have already been talking about him. Cassio and Desdemona later meet and begin talking, but he leaves once he sees Othello. Othello is not pleased. Taking advantage of the situation, Iago remarks that the pair are acting suspicious, which upsets Othello and gives him a headache. Desdemona attempts to soothe Othello with her handkerchief, which he brushes away and is dropped onstage. Emilia finds the handkerchief and gives it to Iago. Iago continues to imply that Cassio and Desdemona are having an affair and suggests setting up a trap to catch them. Iago gets promoted.
Later, Desdemona is upset that she cannot find her handkerchief.
Othello Act 3 Questions and Activities for Further Analysis
- How does Iago convince Othello that Desdemona is cheating on him with Cassio? What evidence (or “proof”) and rhetorical techniques does he use?
- Jealousy is a particularly noteworthy theme in Act 3. What are some things that Shakespeare is suggesting about jealousy?
- What is the significance of Desdemona’s handkerchief, an item that Iago initially describes as a “trifl[e]” (3.3.370)? What does the item mean to each character that interacts with it? How does meaning and significance change throughout the act?
Act 4 Summary
Iago continues to torment Othello by innocuously describing Othello being cuckolded. He then sets up Othello to overhear a conversation about Desdemona’s handkerchief between Cassio and Bianca, a courtesan who is in love with Cassio. Desdemona and Lodovico arrive with a letter calling Othello back to Venice and to leave Cassio in charge. Already believing that Desdemona has cheated on him, Othello hits Desdemona for her response.
Othello then interrogates Emilia and Desdemona regarding Desdemona’s fidelity. Both women assert that Desdemona has been honest. Desdemona, understandably upset at being called a “whore” (4.2.83) and “strumpet” (4.2.98), laments to Emilia and Iago. Iago assures her that Othello will likely change his mind. Roderigo then accuses Iago of not dealing fairly with him; Iago continues to manipulate Roderigo by proposing that they murder Cassio. Finally, in a separate location, Desdemona and Emilia debate over whether a woman would cheat on her husband.
Othello Act 4 Questions and Activities for Further Analysis
- How has Othello changed from the first half of the play?
- How do conversations that characters have with each other privately (say, for example, Othello and Iago, Cassio and Bianca, and Emilia and Desdemona) differ from conversations that happen in public view or hearing? What happens when a private conversation is overheard?
- Review the arguments that Desdemona and Emilia give in their debate on the nature of women. What does each woman suggest? How do their viewpoints reflect their characters?
Act 5 Summary
In good tragic fashion, nearly everyone dies. Roderigo and Iago attempt to kill Cassio. Iago kills a wounded Roderigo. Othello murders Desdemona by strangling her in their bed and kills himself once he realizes that Desdemona was innocent. Emilia bursts into the final scene to reveal that Iago was behind everything all along. Iago is arrested and taken away to be tortured.
Othello Act 5 Questions and Activities for Further Analysis
- Why does Othello murder Desdemona? More specifically, what is the significance of the method (strangulation) and the location (their shared bed)?
- What eventually convinces Othello that he had been duped and that Desdemona had never actually cheated on him?
- Examine Othello’s final speech. How does Othello frame himself here? How does this speech compare with other speeches he has given throughout the play?
- In his final line, Iago remarks that “From this time forth [he] never will speak word” (5.2.356). What is the rationale for Iago’s silence? How is his refusal to speak significant, whether in reference to his character throughout the play or to the amount of references to speaking in Act 5, Scene 2?
Attribution:
Hagstrom-Schmidt, Nicole. “Drama: Selected Reading and Study Questions.” In Surface and Subtext: Literature, Research, Writing. 3rd ed. Edited by Claire Carly-Miles, Sarah LeMire, Kathy Christie Anders, Nicole Hagstrom-Schmidt, R. Paul Cooper, and Matt McKinney. College Station: Texas A&M University, 2024. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
